Englishers Locale: Re POST

Englishers Locale: Re POST: "The CAS Torch Results will be posted on Monday. Both on web and in school's bulletin. God bless"

Re POST

The CAS Torch Results will be posted on Monday. Both on web and in school's bulletin. God bless

Englishers Locale: Re POST

Englishers Locale: Re POST: "I am doing my thesis on The Impacts of Mother Tongue to Students' Grammatical Competence in English,. I am soliciting similar data, infos, f..."

Re POST

I am doing my thesis on The Impacts of Mother Tongue to Students' Grammatical Competence in English,. I am soliciting similar data, infos, facts and the like. This will be of great help for me! Thank you

Verbs_ Grammar

Lesson 1: Recognizing Verbs
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1. A VERB is a word that shows action, links another word to the subject, helps another verb, or merely indicates existence.

* Liza ANNOUNCED the result. (action-verb ; shows what the subject is doing.)

* The soup TASTES delicious. (linking verb; links delicious to the subject SOUP.)

* They WILL enjoy the movie. (helping verb; 'Will' helps the verb 'ENJOY' to show action.)

* Our classmates ARE here. (merely indicates the existence of CLASSMATES.)


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2. An ACTION VERB expresses physical action or mental action.

some examples:

* landed
* walk
* laugh
* arrive
* eat
* sink
* consider
* wants
* hoped
* dream
* realized
* appreciate


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3. A LINKING VERB does not express action. It LINKS a word in the predicate to the subject.

* The gift LOOKS nice. (The verb 'LOOKS' links 'NICE' to the subject 'GIFT'.)

* Justin IS a computer programmer. ( The verb 'IS' links 'PROGRAMMER' to the subject 'JUSTIN'.


examples of linking verbs:

* be
* am
* is
* are
* was
* were
* can be
* could be
* has been
* look
* smell
* appear
* become
* grow


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4. The verbs TASTE, FEEL, SMELL, SOUND, LOOK, APPEAR, BECOME, SEEM, GROW, REMAIN, STAY may be used as action verbs as well as linking verbs, depending on the sense of the sentence.

* Maria LOOKS pretty in my dress. (LOOKS is a linking verb that links PRETTY to the subject MARIA.)

* Maria LOOKS for an attractive but modest clothing. (LOOKS is an action verb. The subject is performing the action of looking.)

* Norman APPEARS handsome in his new tuxedo. (APPEARS acts as a linking verb)

* Norman APPEARS in the hall. (APPEARS acts a an action verb)


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5. An AUXILLIARY VERB or HELPING VERB helps the main verb to make a statement.

* Children MUST obey their parents. ( The verb MUST helps the main verb OBEY to show action.)

* Children MUST be obedient to their parent's wishes. ( The verb MUST helps the main verb BE to link OBEDIENT to the subject CHILDREN.)

* We WILL be here next time. ( The verb WILL helps the main verb BE to indicate existence.)


Examples of Auxilliary Verbs:

* be
* am
* is
* are
* was
* were
* have
* has
* do
* does
* shall
* may
* would
* could
* should


Note: The forms of "BE" may be linking as well as helping verbs. The forms of "HAVE" and "DO" may also be action verbs.


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6. A VERB PHRASE is a main verb and its helping verbs. Quite often, a verb phrase is interrupted by other words.

* Today, farming HAS DEVELOPED into a highly scientific procedure.
* Dependency, IS not SUGGESTED in the article that we read.
* Where DOES discouragement COME from?



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Exercise:


Identify the verb and verb phrases in each sentence below.


1.) The rooms were cleaned for the opening.

2.) Did we prepare for the show?

3.) I had already left for the program.

4.) They were amazed by the beauty of the place.

5.) We have accepted the invitation.

6.) Tell Justin about the requirements.

7.) The truck did not deliver until noon.

8.) His gift was taken after the show.

9.) I haven't played the game ever since.

10.) Eating inside the library is not allowed.

Englishers Locale: Language Convention

Englishers Locale: Language Convention: "For Dan Mandia: The Language Convention that will start tomorrow is postponed.For perusal, please refer to the e-memorandum we have sent in ..."

Englishers Locale: Language Convention

Englishers Locale: Language Convention: "For Dan Mandia: The Language Convention that will start tomorrow is postponed.For perusal, please refer to the e-memorandum we have sent in ..."

Language Convention

For Dan Mandia: The Language Convention that will start tomorrow is postponed.For perusal, please refer to the e-memorandum we have sent in your e-mail. Wait for further instructions from the team regarding of the next schedules. We hope you will be there the time you will receive or read the e-memorandum.

> Dan D. Mandia of Romblon State University our LAnguage Seminar is postponed!

SSC ELections

KABATAK: Pres- ANthony C.Sevilla, VPres- Dan D.Mandia, Sec- Christine Manal, Treas-Pablito F. Fajilan, Auditor- Jerome Madrona at PIO- CArl Jonash Opiana .Sa aming pamumuno, kami po'y naglilingkod.

Honorifics 101

Honorifics
An honorific (sometimes Honorable) is a word or expression that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes the term is used not quite correctly to refer to an honorary title. It is also often conflated with systems of honorific speech in linguistics, which are grammatical or morphological ways of encoding the relative social status of speakers.
Typically honorifics are used for second and third persons; use for first person is less common. Some languages have anti-honorific or despective first person forms (meaning something like "your most humble servant" or "this unworthy person") whose effect is to enhance the relative honor accorded a second or third person.
Modern English honorifics
The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before the name of the subject. Honorifics which can be used of any adult of the appropriate sex include "Mr", "Mrs", "Miss", and "Ms". Other honorifics denote the honored person’s occupation, for instance "Doctor", "Coach", Officer, "Father" (for a priest), or "Professor". Abbreviations of academic degrees, used after a person's name, may also be seen as a kind of honorific (e.g. "Jane Doe, Ph.D.")
Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as "Sir" or "Ma'am", or "Your Honour". Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order: "Yes, Sir" or even "Sir, yes Sir."
A judge is addressed as "Your Honour" when on the bench, and may be referred to as "His/Her Honour"; the plural form would be "Your Honours". Similarly, a monarch (ranking as a king or emperor) and his consort may be addressed or referred to as "Your/His/Her Majesty", "Their Majesties", etc. (but there is no customary honorific accorded to a female monarch's consort, as he is usually granted a specific style). Monarchs below kingly rank are addressed as "Your/His/Her Highness", the exact rank being indicated by an appropriate modifier, e.g. "His Serene Highness" for a member of a princely dynasty, or "Her Grandducal Highness" for a member of a family that reigns over a grand duchy. Verbs with these honorifics as subject are conjugated in the third person (e.g. "you are going" vs. "Your Honour is going" or "Her Royal Highness is going".)
In music, a distinguished conductor or virtuoso instrumentalist may be known as "Maestro

Modern English honorifics
The most common honorifics in modern English are usually placed immediately before the name of the subject. Honorifics which can be used of any adult of the appropriate sex include "Mr", "Mrs", "Miss", and "Ms". Other honorifics denote the honored person’s occupation, for instance "Doctor", "Coach", Officer, "Father" (for a priest), or "Professor". Abbreviations of academic degrees, used after a person's name, may also be seen as a kind of honorific (e.g. "Jane Doe, Ph.D.")
Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as "Sir" or "Ma'am", or "Your Honour". Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking a superior a question or after responding to an order: "Yes, Sir" or even "Sir, yes Sir."
A judge is addressed as "Your Honour" when on the bench, and may be referred to as "His/Her Honour"; the plural form would be "Your Honours". Similarly, a monarch (ranking as a king or emperor) and his consort may be addressed or referred to as "Your/His/Her Majesty", "Their Majesties", etc. (but there is no customary honorific accorded to a female monarch's consort, as he is usually granted a specific style). Monarchs below kingly rank are addressed as "Your/His/Her Highness", the exact rank being indicated by an appropriate modifier, e.g. "His Serene Highness" for a member of a princely dynasty, or "Her Grandducal Highness" for a member of a family that reigns over a grand duchy. Verbs with these honorifics as subject are conjugated in the third person (e.g. "you are going" vs. "Your Honour is going" or "Her Royal Highness is going".)
In music, a distinguished conductor or virtuoso instrumentalist may be known as "Maestro".
Honorifics in other languages and cultures
Pakistan
Pakistan has a large number of honorific forms that may be used with or as a substitute for names. The most common honorifics in Pakistan are usually placed immediately before the name of the subject or immediately after the subject. There are a lot of variations across Pakistan.
Prefix type
The traditional Urdu honorific in Pakistan for a male is the prefic "-Mohtaram". For example Syed Mohammad Jahangir would become Mohtaram Syed Mohammad Jahangir The traditional Urdu honorific in Pakistan for a female is the prefix "-Mohtarma". For example Shamim Ara would become Mohtarma Shamim Ara
Suffix type
The traditional Urdu honorific in Pakistan for a male is the suffix "-Sahab". For example Syed Zaki Ahmed would become Syed Zaki Ahmed Sahab The traditional Urdu honorific in Pakistan for a female is the suffix "-Sahiba". For example Shamim Ara would become Shamim Ara Sahiba
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome had Roman honorifics like that of Augustus which turned into titles over time.
Spanish
Spanish has a number of honorific forms that may be used with or as substitutes for names, such as señor 'Mr., Sir, gentleman', señora 'Mrs., Lady, ma'am, lady', señorita 'Miss, young lady', licenciado 'person with a bachelor's degree', maestro 'teacher, master mechanic, person with a master's degree', doctor 'doctor', etc.
Italy
Italian honorifics are usually limited to formal situations.
Turkey
Turkish honorifics generally follow the first name, especially if they refer to gender or particular social statuses (e.g. Name Bey (Mr.), Name Hanım (Ms.), Name Hoca (teacher or cleric)). Such honorifics are used both in formal and informal situations. A newer honorific is "Sayın", which precedes the surname or full name, and is not gender-specific. (e.g. Sayın Name Surname, or Sayın Surname). They are generally used in very formal situations.
India
Indian honorifics abound, covering formal and informal relationships for social, commercial, spiritual and generational links. Honorifics may be prefix, suffix or replacement types. There are many variations across India.
Prefix type
The most common honorifics in India are usually placed immediately before the name of the subject. Honorifics which can be used of any adult of the appropriate sex include "Sri" (also Romanised as Shri, acronym for Sriman) "Smt" (acronym for Srimati), and "Kum" (acronym for Kumari). In Tamil, Thiru (acronym of Thiruvalar for males) and Thirumathi (for females) are used.
Replacement type
Some honorifics act as complete replacements for a name, as "Bhavān" or "Bhavatī".
In Gujarati, for an uncle who is your mother's brother the replacement honorific "maama" (long "a" then short "a") is used and a male friend will often earn the suffix honorific of "bhai".
Hindi also distinguishes between the pronouns for example a person older in age or status is referred as "aap" whereas a younger person is called "tum" [ both substituting for 'you' in English ] . Similar distinction exists for third person pronouns. When honorifics are attached in Hindi, the verb matches the plural case.
Suffix type
• The traditional Hindi honorific is the suffix -ji. For example M.K. Gandhi (The Mahatma) was often referred to as Gandhi-ji.
• The traditional Kannada honorific is the suffix -avaru. For example Visveswariah was referred to as Visveswariah-avaru.
• The traditional Marathi honorific is the suffix -rao. For example Madhav Scindia was referred to as Madhav-rao.
• The traditional Tamil honorific is the suffix Avargal/Vaal. The Dalai Lama would become Dalai Lama Avargal.
• The traditional Telugu honorific is the suffix Garu. Thus the Dalai Lama would be Dalai Lama Garu.
Korea
Korean honorifics are used not only as sentences but also words.
China
During the ancient and imperial periods, Chinese honorifics varied greatly based on one's social status, but with the end of Imperial China, many of these distinctions fell out of colloquial use. Some honorifics remain in use today, especially in formal writings for the court and business setting.
Japan
Japanese honorifics are similar to English titles like "Mister" and "Miss"; but in Japanese, which has many honorifics, their use is mandatory in many formal and informal social situations. Japanese grammar as a whole tends to function on hierarchy—honorific stems are appended to verbs and some nouns, and in many cases one word may be exchanged for another word entirely with the same verb- or noun-meaning, but with different honorific connotations. The Japanese personal pronouns are a good example of the honorific hierarchy of the Japanese language—there are five or more words that correspond to each of the English words, "I" and "you".
Java
Indonesia's Javanese majority ethnicity has many honorifics[1]. I Gusti means His or Her Royal Majesty Bendara Raden Mas, Bendara Mas or the contraction "'ndoro" means Prince, flag-bearer "His Higness" Bapak and its contraction Pak mean: Sir, Mister or literally "Father".
Ibu and its contraction Bu mean: Madam, Ma'am,. Ms or Mrs, literally "Mother"
Raden Emas and its contraction Mas mean: Mr. among colleagues, friends, and others of slightly higher age or social status, literally Golden Son or Lord or Heir Apparent. Raden Emas Behi contracted to Mas Behi means 2nd Heir Apparent and is now obsolete. Raden Behi, contracted to Den Behi means Heir Apparent and is now obsolete. mbak yu and the more common mbak are derived from Surakarta court to address adolescent or marriage age unmarried women, but is now for women , with no age or marital status connotation
Eyang Puteri and its contraction Eyang mean: Grand Lady, literally grandmother.
Eyang Putera Kakung and its contraction Eyang Kakung mean: Grand Sir, literally grandfather.
Bapak Gede and its contraction Pak de mean: Grand Sir, literally big father or uncle o relative older than one's father .
Bapak Cilik and its contraction Pak lik mean: for a very familiar friend Sir, literally small father or a relative younger than one's Gaflakapus father- but very familiar.
Mbok is not an honorific and denotes a very low status older woman.
Bang or Bung is a somewhat outdated and egalitarian term to refer to a brotherhood among males. Bang is Betawi language for Mas.
Malay
Malay honorifics are the Malay language's complex system of titles and honorifics which is still extensively used in Malaysia and Brunei. Singapore, whose Malay royalty was abolished by the British colonial government in 1891, has adopted civic titles for its leaders.
Lecture
Chinese
. This is often used in the workplace and on more formal occasions:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese The same meaning in English
Hu Zhu Xi 胡主席 President Hu
Zhang Jing Li 张经理 Manager Zhang
Liu Zhu Ren 刘主任 Director Liu
To address based on professional qualifications, which expresses respect to those being addressed:


Chinese Pinyin Chinese The same meaning in English
Li Jiao Shou 李教授 Professor Li
Wang Lu Shi 王律师 Lawyer Wang
Zhao Gong Cheng Shi 赵工程师 Engineer Zhao
An address based on educational qualifications is helpful to emphasize the academic authority of the people being addressed:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese The same meaning in English
Yang Bo Shi 杨博士 Dr. Yang
Gao Shuo Shi 高硕士 Master Gao
Ma Xue Shi 马学士 Bachelor Ma
To address based on professions:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese The same meaning in English
Wang Lao Shi 王老师 Teacher Wang
Zhang Yi Sheng 张医生 Docotor Zhang
Liu Jing Guan 刘警官 Officer Liu
Generally, you can call others by their family name or full name by putting the Mr. or Ms. in front. This is the general address most widely used in company, hotels, stores, restaurants, karaoke, bars and other places.
You can use a person's full name or family name when addressing acquaintances, good friends and colleagues, or only the surname proceeded by an informal title which indicates his age:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese Meaning in English Note
Lao Li 老李 Elder Li A person older than yourself
Xiao Wang 小王 Younger Wang A person younger than yourself
Phatic Communion
A smile, good eye contact and politeness are expressions of sincerity. These are the beginning of communication. Just like westerners, the Chinese usually pass the time of day with one another as a precursor to getting to the point of a conversation or presentation.
Different conditions require different styles in which conversational greetings may be exchanged. When you meet someone for the first time, the most commonly-used words are:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese The same meaning in English
Ni Hao 你好 Hello/Hi
Hen Gao Xing Ren Shi Ni 很高兴认识你 Glad to see you. / Nice to meet you.
Xing Hui (more formal ) 幸会 How do you do?
For greeting acquaintances, the words will be more informal and friendly like the following:
Chinese Pinyin Chinese Meaning in English
Hao Jiu Bu Jian 好久不见 Long time no see!
Ni Qi Se Bu Cuo 你气色不错 You look very well today!
Chi Le Ma 吃了吗 Have you had your meal?
Mang Shen Me Ne 忙什么呢？ What are you busying doing these days?
Zui Jin Ru He 最近如何？ How are you doing recently?
Shen Ti Zen Me Yang 身体怎么样？ How are you feeling? / How are you?
Jia Ren Dou Hao Ba 家人都好吧？ How is your family?
Qu Na'er 去那儿啊？ Where are you going?
Shang Ban Qu Ma 上班去吗？ You are going to work?
Jin Tian Feng Hen Da 今天风很大 The wind is so strong today.
Ni Nu Er Zhen Ke Ai 您女儿真可爱 Your daughter is so lovely!
This phatic communion is a salutation without expectation of a response, the question being rhetorical. However, it should be compact, friendly and respectful. It is improper to ask about the personal affairs of other people, for delving into another's privacy is considered to be discourteous. Remember always to be active, passionate, natural and attentive when
Forms of address in Bahasa
Indonesians have a very rich conception of status, age and familiarity being the two main components that constitute their forms of address. A lot of the forms relate to family member names. What I like about this is how it seems to make everyone an insider. Indonesians don't judge on the basis of gender or race or class, but they very much do on the basis of relative location.
Bapak: literally "father" (although the actual word for father is "ayah") now is used to refer to any older man (like 'sir'). Often shortened to pak. The Indonesians love to shorten things.
Ibu: literally "mother" refers to any older woman (Madam, miss, Mrs.). Shortened to Bu.
engkau/ kau/ kamu: "you" among intimate equals, children, juniors, or pupils.
Nona: "miss" very formal. Not used for women past middle age.
Nyonya: "Mrs." formal. For married women.
Tuan: literally "Lord" originally "tuhan" this is a remnant of Dutch colonialism when Indonesians would refer to the Dutch in this manner. It is generally taboo now, except when referring to God.
Saudara: lit "cousin" for Mr. or Miss. This term was pumped by the government for awhile (Indonesian has only been around officially since the 40s) but it never really caught on. It is, however, a staple in Indonesian-English dictionaries. Before I went to Indonesia, I listened to a US government-issued tape for diplomats headed to Indonesia and it was used prolifically. Especially as "saudara-saudara" meaning "ladies and gentlemen."
you: apparently it is common to substitute the nicely neutral English "you" to avoid having to navegate some potentially awkward social situations.
Sdr. Cook: Mr. Cook
kakak: My favorite, because it's what the kids called me. literally "big sister" it gets shortened to "kak" for most people and is used on both older girls and boys.
Lecture III
Let’s now summarize the major differences in Chinese and American English address use as follows:
􀆔 Recently, the trend of many English-speaking people has been to address others by using the first name than
using titles like Mr., Mrs., or Miss even when people meet for the first time. This applies not only to people of
roughly the same age, but also of different ages. It is not a sign of disrespect. However, this is quite counter to
Chinese custom.
􀆔 Kinship terms play an important part in Chinese address system. Age, generation and order of seniority are
regarded as far more important than those in American system.
􀆔 The use of a person’s title, office or occupation is quite common in Chinese address system. But one seldom
hears English speakers addressing others as Bureau Director Smith, Manager Jackson, Principal Morris. In
English, only a few occupations or titles would be used which include Doctor, Judge, Governor, Mayor and professor.

Due to the complexity of Chinese address system, there do exist some problems in finding the English
equivalents of some Chinese terms of address. For instance, how to address a teacher has long been a problem.
Should it be Teacher or Teacher Zhang? Neither of these is in keeping with English custom. Or should we simply
follow the English custom and call the teacher Mr. Zhang, Mrs. Yang, Miss Fei, or just his or her first name? All
of these would sound terrible to Chinese if school-age youngsters were to do so. Should we say Comrade or
Comrade Li? Although terms such as xiansheng and xiaojie can roughly be translated as Mr. or Sir, Miss or Lady,
they carry different connotations. In Chinese, xiansheng and xiaojie are honorific titles, while Sir or Mr. is only a
very common address form. Therefore, American professors or scholars often prefer to be addressed by their
occupational or technical titles such as Professor or Doctor and would be offended if otherwise addressed by Mr..
Prefixes such as lao (Old), xiao (Little) and the suffix lao (Old) are also regarded by Chinese people as showing
friendliness or affection or respect. However, the word “lao” (Old) may make an American extremely unhappy.
Similarly, while the use of xiaojie (Miss) may please a middle-aged American woman, it may really annoy a
Chinese woman. Here again we can see the importance of age, generation and seniority in Chinese address
system. What is considered proper and polite in one language may cause embarrassment or disrespect in another.

Lecture IV

n formal protocol Sir is the correct styling for a knight or a baronet (the UK nobiliary rank just below all peers of the realm), used with (one of) the knight's given name(s) or full name, but not with the surname alone ("Sir James Paul McCartney", "Sir Paul McCartney", or "Sir Paul", but never "Sir McCartney"). The equivalent for a woman is Dame, that is, for one who holds the title in her own right; for such women, the title "Dame" is used as "Sir" for a man, that is, never before the surname on its own. This usage was devised in 1917, derived from the practice, up to the 17th century (and still also in legal proceedings), for the wife of a knight. The wife of a knight or baronet now, however, is styled "Lady [Surname]" (e.g. "Lady McCartney", but never "Lady Linda McCartney", which is reserved for the daughter of a duke, marquess or earl, or now, more recently, for a female member of the Orders of the Garter and the Thistle who possesses no higher title).
In the case of a military officer who is also a knight, the appropriate form of address puts the professional military rank first, then the correct manner of address for the individual, then his name, e.g.,
• Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, KBE (after 1941)[1]
• General Sir Thomas Blamey, KBE (after 1941)[2]
This is also the case with academic titles such as professor:
• Professor Sir Patrick Bateson, FRS
However, the title 'Doctor' is not used in combination with 'Sir': the knighthood takes precedence, and knighted doctors are addressed as knights, though they may still use any postnominal letters associated with their degrees.
With regard to British knighthood, a person who is not a citizen of a Commonwealth realm who receives an honorary knighthood is entitled to use any postnominal letters associated with the knighthood, but not the title "Sir". A similar convention applies to Church of England clergy who receive knighthoods, for example:
• The Reverend Dr John Polkinghorne, KBE, FRS
Clergy in other denominations may use different conventions.
Dual nationals holding a Commonwealth citizenship that recognise the British monarch as head of state are entitled to use the styling. Common usage varies from country to country: for instance, dual Bahamian-American citizen Sidney Poitier, knighted in 1974, is often styled "Sir Sidney Poitier", particularly in connection with his official ambassadorial duties, although he himself rarely employs the title.
Especially in North America, the style "Sir" is frequently employed by knights of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (female members of that order are styled Lady).
his type of vocative in English and Persian can be classified into four categories: Generic, religious, honorific and occupation bound titles.
Generic titles (GT) include آقا /agha/ and خانم /khanom/ in Persian and M. forms (such as Mr., Miss) also lady, sir and gentleman in English .In Persian these titles proceed FN, LN or FLN. Sometimes they may follow FN. Nevertheless, in English, these M. forms, applicable to anyone, considering age, gender and marital status, are most often used with LN (Gramely and patzold 2003). English enjoys more options in the case of generic tittles. As an illustration of generic terms for addressing women, Mrs. refers to a married woman, Miss refers to a single one and Ms. is used when you do not know the marital status of the addressee. In translation from Persian to English, the translator, being aware of the nuances of meaning among them and regarding the context, age, gender and marital status of the addressee, use CA and will choose the best option.
Both English and Persian have their own specific religious address terms. One way of religious addressing refers to hierarchical ranking of Shia clergymen in Persian language such as آيت الله /Ayatollah/ which is used before the full formal name. Still in English since the religion of the majority is Christian, people use different titles to call the religious individuals. Pope is one of such titles, which cannot stand alone. In both languages, some religious address terms like خواهر /khahar/ (sister) and برادر /bradar / (brother) have different usage. In Persian, interlocutors utilize these terms as a religious way of addressing each other, and according to Keshavarz(1988), their frequent use signifies Islamic post revolutionary attitude and ideology of their users marking solidarity between them. However, in English people use these terms to refer to religious individuals in the church. It should be noted that this type of religious address terms are mainly referential.
In Persian, one particular way of addressing refers to pilgrims of three holy shrines: Mecca, Karbala, and Mashhad. A person who has been to those holy places is referred to as حاجي /haji/ or حاج آقا /hajagha/ for men and حاجيه خانم /hajieh khanom/ for women, كربلايي /karbalaii/ and مشهدی /mashhadi/ for men.
The last case of religious oriented address terms which is specific to Muslims is the use of the titles سيد /seyyed/ (male descendant of Holly Imams) and سيده /seyeedeh/ (female descendant of Holly Imams). These terms can be used in isolation or with FN or FLN. These words are transferred into Persian from Arabic language. Therefore, it is worth noting their translation from Arabic to English in Hatim and Mason (1990) who consider it from a semiotic point of view; however, it is out of the scope of this study.
Each religion has some words and expressions peculiar to itself. It is not easy to find identical terms in another language with different religion. Therefore, these terms need to be transliterated in TL. Sometimes the translator may use a note to explain the meaning of the term and rank of the person. In the case of two words رادر /baradar/ and خواهر /khahar/, their English equivalent brother and sister are used.
Another type of vocative under the category of title terms is occupation- bound terms that are very common in Persian and English language. These titles may be classed as vocational (دكتر /doctor/ (doctor), استاد /ostad/ (master) as ranks in the military or police (امير /Amir/ (general), سرباز /sarbaz/ (private).
In Persian these titles can stand alone or in combination with GT (خانم دكتر /khanom doctor/, آقاي رئيس جمهور /aghaye ra'eis jomhoor/, LN (دكتر محمدي doctor mohammadi, سردار محمدي /sardar Mohammadi/) or both of them آقاي /دكتر احمدي /aghaye doctor Ahmadi/) also they can be combined with GT and FLN ( آقاي مهندس احمد محمدي /aghaye mohandes Ahmad Mohamadi/). Obviously, these title terms would be recursive in Persian; however, in English, they can be used either alone or in combination with LN. Due to the recursion of these terms in Persian language in translation from Persian to English, the translator may translate the main title of that person. In the case of titles in the army or vocational titles, they can be rendered to their equivalents in English. Some of the Persian vocational address terms may not be used as vocative in English, so they can be translated to M. forms.
Mehrotra (1981) points out that the use of honorifics is the common characteristic of most oriental languages. These honorifics carry the idea of politeness, power and solidarity between the interacting people. In order to put more respect and formality into speech, Persian speakers enjoy such address terms. These kinds of titles may be conveyed through job title (JT), FN+LN or GT+FN+ LN.
The English use such words as Madam / sir, Ma'am, Miss, Lady alone or M-forms plus LN. Other terms of honorific refer to the way of addressing officials or royal members. Such honorifics are used in isolation, both in English and Persian.
One of the Persian language characteristics is exaggerating in using honorific terms in order to observe politeness. Such high politeness does not exist in every day use in English. Therefore, in translation from Persian to English these address terms may be deleted or rendered by M-forms. Concerning the translation of address terms referring to the royal members and officials, they can be rendered by their proper near equivalents in English.

5-3. Kinship or Family / Relative Terms
A good number of address terms indicate the family relationships among individuals that may function as a name or title. In both Persian and English, one use these kinship terms (KT) to refer to family members and other relatives. Moreover, one may use such terms to address non –relatives in order to show intimacy or respect. In English, diminutives may also be used. Some kinship terms may combine with name in the manner of title. As Mollanazar (2008) remarks it, some of the relative terms have a wider reference area in Persian than in English. As a result, when translating from Persian to English, the more general word will be used as the equivalent of one of the words noted in the area (Mollanazar, 2008). Since the use of KT for non-relative is not so common in English compared to Persian, they can be translated to M –forms or the same KT, when it does not seem unnatural in the context.

5-4. Terms of Intimacy
Another type of address terms is used to show affection and friendliness among the members of an in-groups, friends, or persons whose wants and personality traits are known and liked for each other. In addition to the aforementioned conditions for using FN and LN in intimate modes, there are other possibilities to address intimate partners. One is to use nicknames that are defined in oxford dictionary as informal often humorous names connected with a person's real name, his / her personality or appearance or with some thing s/he has done. The other possibility of addressing intimate partner is to call them by their abbreviated FN such as / Mamad/ used for Mohammad in Persian. The last common way of addressing in situations where there is a very intimate relationship between the interlocutors is using pet names like عزيزم /azizam/ (My dear) since these intimate terms are used in almost the same situations and have the same functions in both languages, finding appropriate equivalent is not very difficult. The best technique used for the translation of nicknames is literal translation. However, the translation strategies used for pet names depend on the context, and gender of the interlocutors. One may use literal translation or other terms of intimacy with the similar connotative meaning. However, if one wants to adapt the target text to the target culture one will use the similar cultural equivalent with the same connotative meaning familiar to the readers of the receptor language.
It is worth noting that the use of intimate terms may differ regarding the gender of interlocutors and their cultures.

Lecture 101
Mrs.” was most often used by women when married, in conjunction with her husband’s first and last names, e.g. “Mrs. John Smith”. A widow was and still is addressed with the same title as when she was married. "Mrs." was rarely used before a woman's first name, maiden name, or before a hyphenated surname her husband was not using. For example, “Mrs. Jane Miller” (wife of John Smith), "Mrs. Jane Smith" or “Mrs. Jane Miller-Smith” were considered incorrect by many etiquette writers, especially of the early 20th century.[3]
“Mrs.” was often used as a default for all women regardless of marital status, following the custom of some European countries. In several languages the title for married women, such as Madame, Señora, Signora, or Frau, is the direct feminine equivalent of the title used for men; the title for unmarried women is a diminutive: Mademoiselle, Señorita, Signorina or Fräulein. For this reason, usage had shifted towards using the married title as the default for all women in professional usage. This had long been followed in the United Kingdom for some high-ranking household staff, such as housekeepers, cooks, and nannies, who were called “Mrs.” as a mark of respect regardless of marital status. However, the marital-neutral Ms. then became the default title for women professionally and socially in the latter 20th century.
In the United Kingdom the traditional form for a divorcée was “Mrs Jane Smith”. In the U.S., the divorcée originally retained her full married name unless she remarried. Later, the form “Mrs. Miller Smith” was sometimes used, with the birth surname in place of the first name. However, the form “Mrs. Jane Miller” eventually became widely used for divorcées, even in formal correspondence.
Before social mores relaxed to the point where single women with children were socially acceptable, the “unwed mother” was often advised by etiquette mavens like Emily Post to use “Mrs.” with her maiden name to avoid scrutiny.
The separation of “Miss” and “Mrs.” became problematic as more women entered the white-collar workforce. Women who became famous or well known in their professional circles before marriage often kept their birth names, stage names, or noms de plume. ‘Miss’ became the appellation for celebrities (Miss Helen Hayes, Miss Amelia Earhart) but this also proved problematic, as when a married woman did use her husband’s name but was still referred to as ‘Miss’ — see more at Ms. and Miss.
[edit] Modern usage
It is now uncommon for women to use their husband's first name, except when the couple is being addressed jointly, such as in “Mr. and Mrs. Rhett Butler”.
Many married women still utilize the title with their husband's last name, but retaining their first name, "Mrs. Jane Smith," while many have eschewed the title completely in professional life, utilizing "Ms." Any choice of title, first, and last name is considered acceptable both socially and professionally today, and should be honored once it is made known.
Modern etiquette has no absolute rules as how to address married couples in which the wife uses her own last name, or uses a title such as “Dr.” or "Mayor". Etiquette writer Judith Martin (“Miss Manners”) generally advises that in non-standard situations, the individuals be addressed in separate lines on invitations (Dr. Sue Martin / Mr. John Martin).
In direct address, a woman with the title “Mrs.” may be addressed "Mrs. [Lastname], or with the stand alone “Madam” or “Ma’am,” though these are most often used for all adult women regardless of marital status in modern conversation.
[edit] Parody usage
The term “M.R.S. degree” has been used derogatorily to describe the goal of a female student whose reason for attending college appears to be primarily to find a husband rather than to study.[4]
[edit] Foreign equivalents
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009)

• Afrikaans: Mevrou (Mev.)
• Albanian: Zonjë (Znj.)
• Amharic: ወይዘሮ (Woyzero, Wrz.)
• Arabic: ﺳﻴﺪۃ (Sayyidah)
• Armenian: Տիկին (Tikin)
• Assyrian: Myaqoorta
• Azeri: Xanım
• Belarusian: Спадарыня Spadarynia (read: -nya), Панi (Pani)
• Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: Gospođa, (Serbian Cyrillic Госпођа) (G-đa or Gđa., Г-ђа or Гђа.)
• Bulgarian: Госпожа (Г-жа G-ja),
• Catalan: Senyora (Sra.)
• Chinese 太太 (Tàitai), 夫人 (Fūren)
• Czech: Paní (Pí.)
• Croatian: Gospođa (Gđa)
• Danish: Fru (Fr.)
• Dutch: Mevrouw (Mevr. or Mw.)
• Esperanto: Sinjorino (S-ino)
• Estonian: Proua (Pr.)
• Finnish: Rouva (Rva)
• Filipino: Ginang (Gng.)
• French: Madame (Mme)
• Galician: Dona (Dna.)
• Georgian: ქალბატონი (K'albatoni)
• German: Frau (Fr.)
• Greek: Κυρία, Kiría , (Κα., Ka.)
• Hebrew: גברת (Gveret)
• Hindi: श्रीमती (Śrīmatī)
• Hungarian: Asszony
• Icelandic: Frú (Fr.)
• Ido: Sioro or Siorino (Sro.; Sr-no.), the former being used both for men or women, and the latter being specific for (usually married) women.
• Indonesian: Nyonya (Ny.)
• Irish: Bean (Bn)
• Italian: Signora (Sig.ra)
• Kurdish: Brajn or Xanm
• Japanese: 夫人 (ふじん) (Fujin)
• Kannada: ಶ್ರೀಮತಿ (Śrīmatī)
• Kazakh: Ханым (Khanym)
• Korean: 부인 (Buin)
• Kotava: weltikya
• Latvian: Kundze
• Lithuanian: Ponia
• Macedonian: Госпоѓа, (Gospogja) (abbreviation: Gga or G-ga; in Cyrilic: Г-ѓа or Гѓа). Used for all married women.
• Malay: Puan
• Malayalam: ശ്രീമതി (Śrīmati)
• Maltese: Sinjura
• Marathi: सौभाग्यवती Saubhāgyavatī (सौ Sau)
• Mongolian: Хатагтай (Hatagtai)
• Norwegian: Fru (Fr.)
• Occitan: Dòna (Da.)
• Oriya: Srimati
• Persian: بانو (Bānu)
• Polish: Pani (P.)
• Portuguese: Senhora (Sra.)
• Punjabi: ਸਰਦਾਰਨੀ (Sardarni) (ਸਦਨ Sdn.)
• Romanian: Doamna (Dna)
• Russian: Госпожа (Gospozha) (Г-жа G-zha)
• Sanskrit: श्रीमती (Śrīmatī)
• Scots Gaelic: Bean (Be.)
• Serbian: Gospodja, Gospođa (Госпођа) (Gdja. Gđa. Гђа.)
• Slovak: Pani (P.)
• Slovenian: Gospa (Ga.)
• Spanish: Señora (Sra.)
• Swedish: Fru (Fr.)
• Tamil: திருமதி (Thirumathi)
• Telugu: శ్రీమతి (Śrīmatī)
• Thai: นาง (Nang)
• Tswana: Mma
• Turkish: Bayan (Byn.), Hanım, Hanımefendi
• Ukrainian: Панi (Pani)
• Urdu: Mohatarma
• Vietnamese: Bà (B.)
• Welsh: Bonesig

Language Planning

Language Planning: Philippine Context

Language planning calls for consultations with the various sectors affected by language policies. For effective implementation, policies should be acceptable to those concerned, otherwise, such policies might only remain in paper.
Based on this premise, the NCCA National Committee on Language and Translation (NCLT) undertook a series of language consultations from 1995 to 1997. These consultations were held in five cities and one municipality representing different regions on the following dates:
Cebu City, August 17-18, 1995
Davao City, Nov. 8-9, 1995
Bacolod City, July 22-23, 1996
Tuguegarao, Cagayan Valley, Oct. 1, 1996
Puerto Princesa City, Nov. 18-19, 1996
Zamboanga City, Feb. 4-5, 1997
The series of consultations aimed to: (1) assess the level of language awareness and information in the regions, (2) gauge the attitudes and opinions in the regions regarding the national language and their native tongues, (3) identify the problems encountered in the implementation of language policies, particularly the bilingual education policy and Executive Order No. 335, enjoining all government agencies to use the national language, Filipino, in all official transactions and communications, (4) list down words from the regional languages that can help enrich and further develop the national language, and (5) seek answers to the following questions: (a) is the national language acceptable to the regions? (b) are the following implemented in the regions – the bilingual education policy and EO 335? (c) if not, for what reasons? (d) what are the possible solutions?
The consultations were attended by various sectors: teachers, students, parents, local government officials, mass media practitioners and non-government organizations.
The following are the findings:
Level of language awareness and information in the regions – there is widespread misinformation and misunderstanding of the bilingual education policy. After more than 20 years of implementation of the bilingual education policy, it seems that many, especially school administrators, still do not fully comprehend the spirit of the bilingual education policy. Some schools half-heartedly implement such policy. Many fear that such policy is aimed at the total replacement of English by Filipino. Such fear results in the negative attitude toward Filipino in the cities of Cebu and Bacolod. In these places, those who attended the consultation denounced what they called "imperialist Manila" for ramming down their throats policies that hurt their native pride. However, such negative attitude toward Filipino was encountered only in these two cities, not in Davao, Tuguegarao, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga. It should be noted that Cebu and Bacolod are old rich cities, whereas the others are "melting pots," where residents are settlers from various parts of the country, speaking various major and minor languages.
Attitudes and opinions regarding the national language and their native tongues – Davao, Tuguegarao, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga have a positive attitude toward Filipino, which serves as lingua franca among residents who speak different native tongues. Cebu and Bacolod, on the other hand, may have exhibited a negative attitude toward Filipino, but it should be made clear that they do not want English or their native languages as the national language; they just do not want to equate language with nationalism.
Problems encountered in the implementation of language policies – Foremost is the lack of accurate information regarding the language policies. On the use of Filipino in government communications, participants in the consultations admitted their lack of competence in the use of written Filipino, lack of references and manuals in writing in Filipino. As medium of instruction, the teachers admitted that they still needed some more training in writing in Filipino and in pronouncing words. They also complained that school administrators still refused to fully implement the bilingual education policy.
Listing of words in regional languages to enrich Filipino – The consultations tried to make the participants aware that the regional languages can further enrich Filipino. The were asked to list down words naming their flora and fauna, customs, etc. for which there are no Tagalog/Filipino equivalents. A good example is bugi (fish roe).
Answers to the following:
Is the national language acceptable in the regions – Except for the cities of Cebu and Bacolod, the answer is yes.
Are the following implemented – bilingual education policy and EO 335 – for the bilingual education policy, yes, except in Cebu because of a restraining order; there are many problems in the implementation of EO 335, like lack of references and manuals, lack of competence, etc.
If not implemented, for what reasons – lack of incentives, lack of vocabulary, lack of information
Any possible solutions – the participants suggested the following: holding seminar-workshops on the use of Filipino as medium of instruction and as medium of official communication; a system of monitoring and follow-up; original writing and translation of important documents from English to Filipino; research on indigenous names of things so as to preserve their local names for the next generation to maintain awareness of their native cultures; a dictionary with accompanying pronunciation that will help those from the regions to pronounce words correctly; and massive information campaign to instill language awareness and inculcate pride in the regional languages and in Filipino.

Immature - A Song Composed by Dan Delos Santos Mandia

Immature
Tune and Lyrics by: Dan Delos Santos Mandia

Hear these beats from my heart
Speaking of a wordless start.
Now I am afraid to colligate
Hope, joy, love and hate

Let the pearl eyes of yours blink
Blink to a horizon which my heart’ll sink
Remold my whole spirit to begin craving
Craving for your love and acceptance

Refrain

Oh I think I’m losing all control
Telling you the ways how I love you
And oh, I don’t wanna live this day

Chorus

Mercy on me my darling
I love the way you have loved me too
I couldn’t deny I ain’t mature to enter to
A relationship that captures my whole life through

For those childish days that I have had
Relates me tom my recent experiences
But I couldn’t deny I still have chance
To regain the love I’ve felt before for you

Repeat Refrain and Chorus 2x

A Poem by Dan Delos Santos Mandia

Bare Glorious Wake
by: Dan Delos Santos Mandia

In this place where
I am is a place where I’ll always be,
Surrounded by black flowers blooming,
Teased by a bee.
This is a jail in wilderness
Where birds don’t sing,
This is a place of no lovers,
A place of a misery thing.

I have never seen the sky
but I know what a star is,
I have never jumped to the sea
but I know how to swim.
I haven’t loved someone
yet I know how Cupid strike every lover,
I haven’t drunk any fluid
but my thirst was quenched.

There’s a wall that hinders me
from the North to the East,
There’s a net that traps me
from the South to the West.
This is a place of emptiness
where you can hear screaming,
This is a place of sorrow,
a place of no dreaming.





I haven’t been to seashore
but I know
how the waves roar,
I have never been to sorrow
yet I know loner’s feelings.
I haven’t stricken by a sword
yet I have felt wounded,
I haven’t cried for sometime
yet my tears fall at once.

Water in this place
screeches an awful song,
Blows of thin air
exhilarate me to a glorious tomb.
This is a tryst of confusions
where you can see all wrong,
A place of bomb of happiness: a place of happiness bomb.

The Uniqo Hijo - Short Story

UNIQO HIJO
It was raining very hard. Streets are definitely bare. The radical dark, is totally invading the entire surroundings. Except from very drop of rain striking the ground the concretes pavement-, nothing could be heard. The rain is definitely outpouring from heaven. Every the drop of the cold rain strikes Ando’s face, shoulders, back, body as he slowly traces his way home. Strength enormously diminishes and with shoulders very droopy, he is chilling as the night breeze gently blows in his wet body. His strength is totally occupied by perforated feeling of ague.
As he behind handedly walks home at the blurred-rainy avenue. Ando is tightly clinging to the cloister of his very busy but a little-bit petulant and gloomy yesterday. He has very vast muster of highly-technologies gadgets. It is not impossible for him to have the latest editions of the lap top computers, recently released model of PSP’s, hyper programmed cellular phones for his father is a high-salaried engineer and his mother is a leveled chief nurse. It seems that all Ando wants is just at his very grasp.




Ando is amply tall youngster and of pleasant disposition. He has a very brilliant face with an excellent body contour for a graduating university student. His eyes are deeply brilliant and stress relinquishing. His hair is very dark and fairly cut.
A few meters near to his home, he notices that the house is in full blast. Their car is quietly resting in their spacious garage. His pet dog, Genie, is pleasantly breaking at their balcony.

“Urf, urf, urf, uurff!” the dog barked joyously.
“Oh my juvenile dog,” Ando said her cleanly “how are you, huh?” he interrogated. The dog jumped joyously, waggled its tail subtlety and interring in the balcony.
As Ando walks in with delight, he saw his mama and papa watching news broadcast.
“Good evening! Ma, Pa,” he greeted loudly. His father exclaimed commendably.
“Oh, yes Pa!” Ando replied gently.
“It’s very late in the evening. Look, Ando! It’s extremely dark outside”, his mother said exasperatedly.
“I’m sorry Ma, Pa. I have just plenty of works to do at school,” Ando elaborately explained.
“Oh right, there you are, change your clothes immediately and we’ll wait for you at the dining room,” his mothe r said opaquely
For twenty years of Ando’s life, that’s the way how’s his mother treat him. At times he would be put to shame by his mother in conspicuous place most especially. Every time he tries to explain his side, his mom would reject it right away. As if there is no ample space for the explanation of his side. There is no space for all his explanations. His father sometimes would understand him but most of the time his father isn’t home. His parents are very busy for their jobs striving to be more and more financially stable. After dinner, Ando went to his room in a hurry. He left the dining room immediately because he knows that Manang Puring is there to fix all the mess in the dining. In his room, he is working for his thesis.
Ando is working on his thesis painstakingly. He keenly browses the MS WORD document of his thesis page by page.
He checks the typographical error he has made. He often edits the tabulation he had made for the demographic study he is conducting. But there is one thing that keeps him unease. He couldn’t concentrate well. There is an abstract and devastative disruption on his mind that irritates him. It curse like white frisky worms in his flesh allowing him to be fiery and disturbed. He keeps on editing his research manuscript. Nevertheless, he couldn’t describe what that particular thing that interrupts him. That is in his biographical sketch in his research manuscript.


It is still raining hard outside. His dog, Genie, keeps on barking outside Ando could clearly hear it from his room. Ando is still disturbed and irritated. Something is skeptical and doubtful. He is interpellating himself with a question he, himself, could not answer.
There is a voice gently whispering into Ando’s heart to remain skeptical.
Ando is still working on his research completing and recalculating the result of his research statistical review. He could clearly hear the loud barks of his pet dog outside. It is now barking very loud as if it is surprised or hit by something or has an enemy.
Ando is still badly irritated but he has no options – he must continue to work. He must complete the statistical computation of his study. He checks all his computations. He recomputed it. He patiently solve one by one and bit by bit.
When he was nearly to complete his computation, he checked first his cellular phone. Seeing that there is no single text or anything, he returned to his work. After finalizing the method by a calculator he immediately saved the document.
Ando still awake and uneasy, he doesn’t feel any force to go to sleep. He opened and browse a social networking website. He was extremely amazed and shocked that somebody commented on his profile. It was a beautiful woman at her middle forties. He zooms the picture. He could easily distinguish that the woman in the picture is a dentist. But he and the woman have several resemblances. Ando was dumbfounded. His nose and that of the woman is by those same.



Shocked by those comments, Ando tried to check the woman’s profile. He was extremely astonished when he saw series of pictures in the woman’s photo album. A picture absolutely strikes an Ando’s whole attention.
It was he when he is 4 months old. He was a baby then with the women holding him. He had already seemed that picture when he still a child yet he couldn’t remember if where that was. He knows that picture is just scanned from a hard copy because of its appearance. He wonders why that picture was in that woman’s profile. Who was she? What was her connection with Ando?
Being mesmerized by the happening, Ando tries to recall if where that photo album is where he had seemed the picture. He left his room, went to the sala and look for that album it wasn’t there. He went to the cabinet in their stockroom; disarrange all the bookshelves of his father but it wasn’t there. It is already one o’clock in the morning but he couldn’t sleep as if something make him bothers - it is the picture.
He scans and scans all the documents inside their stockroom but no single photo album was found.
He immediately ran into their basement.
He opened immediately the light.
It was not that bright.
The basement is very messy.

There he sedulously looks for the album because he strongly believes that the basement is the only place he could search in. he scan all the ill-smelling old books and boxes. He is perspiring that soakly much until a box caught his attention. He immediately opened the box. Coach roaches amazed his sight. It was full of books and folders. He inspected it one by one. Until, he comes finally to the very bottom of the box. That’s the album left unopened 16 years ago. He scanned the album. It smells with the cockroaches’ eggs and opacities. All pictures are still very comprehensible in that album. And he found the picture he is looking. It was really the same picture. He got it and brought it to his room.
In a bright light in his room, Ando cross-examined the two photographs. The two photographs are really identical. But, he couldn’t identify if who if the woman with him in the picture. It wasn’t his mother. At the back of the picture he is holding a name is legibly printed.
EDITH R. CASTRO DMD
That was a professional name - a dentist. The woman on the picture with him is a dentist - A very dentist by her profession.
But, who is that woman?
Ando continuously scanned the woman’s profile and wall. He couldn’t find a single hint as to that woman’s identity. He remained irritated and unease of what he has found. He very and definitely skeptical that time. He wants to intoxicate the white worms creeping in his flesh, in his heart up to his brain. He continued to scan at this time his profile, he come to read the recent notifications. It was legibly printed.
HAPPY 21ST BIRTHDAY MY UNIQO HIJO!
He wondered why the woman commented on his profile that way. And, it was not just an ordinary greeting; it was not just a normal way of greeting a friend, a kin or whatever. Uniqo Hijo. What does it mean? But he has a mother for twenty years.
But he doubted, all his life, everything wasn’t clear. Everything was vague about his reputation. He cried. There is a strong conviction in his heart. There is a voice that insistently whispers that he woman in the picture is his mother. Yes! They have a strong connection. Ando cried enormously. He cried. He wanted to revenge. To whom?
But he doesn’t know. He was just tossed by the wave for years. He slept in tears! Huhuhuhuhu!

Phrase structure rules

Phrase-structure rules are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories (aka parts of speech). Phrasal categories include the noun phrase, verb phrase, and prepositional phrase; lexical categories include noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and many others. Phrase structure rules were commonly used in transformational grammar (TGG), although they were not an invention of TGG; rather, early TGG's added to phrase structure rules (the most obvious example being transformations; see the page transformational grammar for an overview of the development of TGG.) A grammar which uses phrase structure rules is called a phrase structure grammar - except in computer science, where it is known as just a grammar, usually context-free.

Definition

Phrase structure rules are usually of the form A \to B \quad C, meaning that the constituent A is separated into the two subconstituents B and C.

Some examples correct inter alia for natural English language are:

S \to NP \quad VP
NP \to Det \quad N1
N1 \to (AP) \quad N1 \quad (PP)

The first rule reads: An S consists of an NP followed by a VP. This means A sentence consists of a noun phrase followed by a verb phrase. The next one: A noun phrase consists of a determiner followed by a noun.

Further explanations of the constituents: S, Det, NP, VP, AP, PP

Associated with phrase structure rules is a famous example of a grammatically correct sentence. The sentence was constructed by Noam Chomsky as an illustration that syntactically but not semantically correct sentences are possible.

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously can be diagrammed as a phrase tree, as below:

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

where S represents a grammatical sentence. The theory of antisymmetry proposed in the early '90s by Richard Kayne is an attempt to derive phrase structure from a single axiom. A phrase tree can be represented by a ultrametric, see Mark D. Roberts http://arXiv.org/abs/cs.CL/9810012

Courtesy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase_structure_rules

Argumentation ad Debate

What is debate?

A debate is a contest, or, perhaps, like a game, where two or more speakers present their arguments intent on persuading one another. Men have been debating with one another since the beginning of time when the serpent first debated with Eve the benefits of eating certain fruits in the Garden. We shall limit ourselves here with discussing formal contest debating between educational institutions, or, in the world of homeschooling, between families that choose to bypass educational institutions and educate their children at home.
Why debate?

"He [the student debater] learns to use a library, and to find the exact information he needs in the shortest possible time. He learns to be thorough and accurate. He learns to analyze; to distinguish between the vital and the unimportant. He learns the need of proving his statements; of supporting every statement with valid evidence and sound reasoning—and he learns to demand the same sort of proof for the statements of others. He learns to present ideas in a clear and effective manner, and in a way which wins others to his way of thinking. He learns to think under pressure, to "use his head" in a time of need, to make decisions quickly and accurately. In a word, the essential point in any debating situation is that of convincing the listener that your side of the proposition is desirable." (from How to Debate by Harrison Boyd Summers)

John Stuart Mill, in his Autobiography, said, "I have always dated from these conversations [in a discussion group similar to the ideal debate squad meeting] my own inauguration as an original and independent thinker."

"I think debating in high school and college is most valuable training whether for politics, the law, business, or for service on community committees such as the PTA and the League of Women Voters. A good debater must not only study material in support of his own case, but he must also, of course, thoroughly analyze the expected argument of his opponent. The give and take of debating, the testing of ideas, is essential to democracy. I wish we had a good deal more debating in our educational institutions than we do now." John F. Kennedy, August 22, 1960

"I truly believe I would have been as prepared for law school had I simply debated and not attended college at all. I have found that the practice of law—and I assume this is true of a large number of other jobs—consists basically of trying to solve problems in an organized manner.... Debate... placed a premium on the factors that I believe are essential to effective problem solving, including...breaking an argument down into its smallest components and then marshaling factual data...for each element;...talking a problem through with others over a period of time that a contention or issue becomes fully perceivable;...verbally articulating ideas rather than just having a mental conception of them;...and, finally, and perhaps most importantly, coming to appreciate the stresses and rewards of competition." Raoul D. Kennedy, Attorney in San Francisco

"Debate trained me to analyze and articulate the complex national issues that confront our country today. Too, it was a tremendous help in campaign debates for my House and Senate seats... My intercollegiate debate training was the most valuable experience that I had at Penn State. I derived benefits from it far beyond the normal extracurricular activity that it encompassed." Richard S. Schweiker, Former Pennsylvania Congressman and Senator, Former Secretary of Health and Human Services

"If it is a disgrace to a man when he cannot defend himself in a bodily way, it would be absurd not to think him disgraced when he cannot defend himself with reason in a speech." Aristotle from The Rhetoric

"The wisest advice I can give to persons considering debate as an activity is: "participate." In my opinion, hour- for-hour, the reward for time spent debating is greater than any other activity available to the typical student... In addition to the "academic" benefits, potential participants should be alerted to the life-long friendships they will develop, the opportunity to associate with competitive, creative and bright young people, as well as the favorable view of the activity taken by potential employers (particularly in the field of law)." Thomas F. Hozduk, Los Angeles Attorney

"I didn't make varsity cheerleader. I thought my life was over. I ended up joining the speech team instead. And within a year, I became real good. My event was Girls Extemporaneous Speaking. They would give you a topic, and a half-hour later you made a seven-minute speech on it...By my senior year, I was state champion. And I made it to the semifinals of the national competition. The six girls who were ranked ahead of me are probably all arguing cases before the Supreme Court...So I did find out my limitations. But in my smaller pond, I was a big fish. And I can't imagine better preparation for what I do today." (BTW, one of Jane Pauley's teammates is now a homeschooling mother) Jane Pauley, National TV News Anchor

"It was my experience with debating and public speaking in both high school and college that led me to become a lawyer, and ultimately, a member of Congress." Paul E. Kanjorski, Pennsylvania Congressional Representative

Debate is the ultimate mind exercise.
Four types of debate:

1. Parliamentary Debate. This is the debating that goes on in colleges and universities. For more information on this type of debate see the web pages we link to on our Trivium Pursuit Links.
2. Lincoln-Douglas Debate (also called value debate) is modeled after the namesake for the activity. In an Illinois election of the mid-1800s, Abe Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas debated the slavery issue before audiences in different towns around the state. In LD debate two contestants will debate topics centered around moral issues or propositions of value or preference. Here are some examples of topics appropriate for LD debate: capital punishment; abortion; or euthanasia. Typically, all public and private schools will debate the same topic. A new topic is chosen every two months (the topics are chosen by some public school debate organization). The public/private school topic for November and December of 1996 was: Resolved, when in conflict, a business' responsibility to itself ought to be valued above its responsibility to society. The topic for January and February of 1997 is: Resolved, In United State's policy, the principle of universal human rights ought to take precedence over conflicting national interest. See also our links to LD Debate.
3. Cross Examination Debate (also called policy debate or team debate). In this type of debate two teams (two students each ), one representing the affirmative position and one representing the negative position, will debate topics of public or government policy. Here are some examples: Resolved, that chain stores are detrimental to the best interests of the American public (1931); Resolved, that all electric utilities should be governmentally owned and operated (1937); Resolved, that the federal government should own and operate the railroads (1940); and, Resolved, that a federal world government should be established (1943). Typically, all public and private schools will debate the same topic all year long (some public school debate organization picks a new topic each year). The public/private school topic for the 1996-1997 school year is: Resolved, that the federal government should establish a program to substantially reduce juvenile crime in the United States. See also our links to Cross Examination Debate.
4. Academic Debate. These are debates of a purely academic nature. An example of this type of debate would be creation/evolution debates.

How to Get Started in Debate

There are two things you will have to study if you want to participate in debate:

1. The principles of debate—logic, evidence, case construction, proof, refuting arguments, rebuttal, the brief, etc. Pick 3 or 4 debate books out of the debate bibliography located elsewhere on this web page and study them thoroughly (I especially recommend An Introduction to Argumentation and Debate by Christy Farris). View the debate video put out by Home School Legal Defense (watch it several times). Observe as many debates as you can. This will be difficult for some, but you might look into attending some college debates or government high school debates or private school debates. The more you observe and study the more familiar you will become with the procedures and terminology of debate.
2. The current debate topic. Each year there will be a different topic. It is best if you can start studying in June the topic for the coming school year. Studying the current debate topic is the most important part and the most time consuming part of debating. You must study the subject thoroughly, to learn all that is to be known about it. The more time and effort you give to preparation, the more effective debating you will do. The following are a few ideas on how to approach the study of ANY debate topic. Some of this information is taken from How to Debate by Summers, Whan, and Rousse.

We suggest that you follow these four steps:

1. Read for background information about the subject.
2. Prepare a comprehensive bibliography.
3. Collect as much material as you can find.
4. Read and study the material discovered.

We will discuss each of these four steps in detail.
1.Read for background information about the subject.

First you want to get a good general knowledge of the proposition (topic) you are to debate. You need to study the historical background of the topic and why this topic is a matter of current interest. The reading order should be from the general to the specific, from background to present-day facts and figures, from books to magazines to newspapers. Naturally, in studying a question one will use all of these sources more or less concurrently, but for real understanding of the broader aspects one needs background material early in his research.

The Reference Department of your library would be a good place to start. There are several sources you can consult for general background material. We will just mention a few:

* The Encyclopaedia Britannica
* The New International Encyclopedia
* The Social Science Encyclopedia (provides a broad coverage of the social sciences)
* The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
* Facts on File (a weekly world news digest with index)
* Editorials on File (twice-monthly newspaper editorial survey with index)
* Chronicle of the 20th Century (a compilation of newspaper articles, headlines, captions, chronologies, pictures, and cartoons that tells the history of the 20th century in America)
* Current textbooks on your topic

Dave Morgan, a homeschooling Dad in Fresno, California, suggests interviewing a college or university professor who specializes in the topic you are studying. Call the history, political science, chemistry, etc. departments at your local college or university and ask if there is anyone with an interest or specialty in your topic. It would be beneficial to interview several people in order to obtain a wide range of opinions and views on your topic.

We suggest you read one general book that would take the affirmative position on your topic and one general book that would take the negative position. In this way you will have a broad understanding of both sides.

We also suggest you subscribe to a good daily newspaper. Keeping up with current events is very important to good debaters.
2.Prepare a comprehensive bibliography.

The second step in your study of topic will be that of preparing a general bibliography. A bibliography is a list of books, pamphlets, magazine articles, and other printed materials in which information may be found on a given subject. Excellent bibliographies on many subjects have already been compiled. If a bibliography on your topic is available you should try to obtain it. The major sources of published bibliographies are:

* Bibliographies loaned to libraries: Library of Congress, Bibliographical Division, Washington, D.C.
* Bibliographies available for purchase:
* Bibliographies included in books prepared especially for debaters:

You will also need to prepare your own bibliography to supplement these prepared bibliographies. Your bibliography will include:

* Books and Pamphlets

To find books relevant to your topic you can do a keyword search at your library (consult Subject Headings for suggestions on keywords). Other sources are: Subject Guide to Books in Print (books from Books in Print are rearranged under subject headings),

* Magazine Articles

Search using the computer or use Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. Check the Alternative Press Index (periodicals from a certain side of the political spectrum), the Social Sciences Citation Index, Congressional Digest (each issue is devoted to a single important question currently before Congress and consists of pro and con materials), Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (journal that covers several controversial topics)

* Encyclopedias, Dictionaries and other reference works

Who's Who in America

Statistical Abstract of the U. S.

Statesman's Yearbook

* Court opinions
* Newspaper Articles
* Government Sources

1. One should write one's representative and senator early in the season requesting all available materials on the current topic.

2. Special agencies. Among the most useful of these are:

The Library of Congress, U.S. Office of Education, Government Printing Office

* Internet Sources
* Debate Handbooks
* Private Sources and Personal Interviews

Examples of this would be: American Medical Association, the AFL-CIO, The Foundation for Economic Education, the National Association of Manufacturers, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce. Many others are listed in the World Almanac.

We have found it useful to work on preparing your bibliography while at home using the internet. If possible log onto the card catalog of your local library (or a university or college library if possible) and do your research in the unhurried atmosphere of your own home. The WWW is also a valuable source for preparing your bibliography.

3.Collect as much material as you can find.

After you have listed all the references you can find on the topic, you must then get as much of the actual material as you can.
4.Read and study the material discovered.

After you have secured all of the material available, you will then read and study carefully the books and articles you have found. Try to learn as much as you can about the subject and to get the points of view of as many different authorities as possible. Be on the lookout for new ideas and new suggestions for arguments, arguments on both sides of the topic. Look for specific items of evidence, which might be used as proof. Take careful notes as you read. We will discuss how to take notes next.
General Rules for Debate

The following rules are taken from Competitive Debate—Rules and Techniques by George McCoy Musgrave (1957), from some of Chapter 1.

Keep in mind that some of these rules MAY NOT APPLY to modern debate.

Debate, like many competitive activities, has rules and customs with which participants and judges should be thoroughly familiar. Until 1945, the rules were largely unwritten; they passed by word of mouth from debater to debater and from school to school. It is not surprising, then, to find some disagreement as to what they actually are.

In the last few years considerable progress has been made in the development of standards and procedures generally acceptable on a national basis. Widespread intersectional competition and national debate publications have accelerated this trend...
The Teams

The rules governing participants are these:

Rule 1. There are two teams. Each team consists of two or three speakers.

When the debate is arranged, agreement is reached as to whether two- or three-man teams will be employed. Two-man teams now predominate...
The Speeches

Rule 2a. The speeches and speaking time are divided equally between the two teams.

The tournament rules or debate contract specifies the amount of time allocated to each speech. The total speaking time generally runs about one hour including questioning periods.

Rule 2b. Each team has two or three constructive speeches.

It is customary for each member of the team to be allowed one constructive speech. Thus, if two-man teams are employed, there are two constructive speeches per team. If three-man teams are employed, there are three constructive speeches per team.

Rule 2c. Each team has from one to three rebuttal speeches.

In standard debate, it is customary for each participant to speak in rebuttal. ... The number of rebuttal speeches is, of course, specified in the pre-debate correspondence or tournament rules.

Rule 2d. The affirmative gives the first constructive speech, and the constructive speeches alternate: affirmative, negative, affirmative, negative.

Rule 2e. The negative gives the first rebuttal speech, and the rebuttals alternate; negative, affirmative, negative, affirmative.

Thus, the affirmative has both the first and last speeches of the debate. This arrangement is designed to compensate for the affirmative's burden of proof, explained later.

Rule 2f. In Oregon type debate, each team has one or more questioning periods, in addition to the constructive speeches and rebuttals.

There are several versions of cross-examination debate. The arrangement to be used is agreed upon when the debate is being planned.
The Topic

When the topic is worded, whether by the national committed or by the local debaters, the following rule is applied:

Rule 3a. When worded as a proposition of policy, the topic requires the affirmative to support some specified action by some particular individual or group.

The proposition of policy takes the form, "Resolved, that the United States should grant statehood to Hawaii." Other wordings are possible and have been used in the past, but they have proved less satisfactory. The national high school and the national college topics have been phrased in this manner for so many years that other wordings are now generally considered improper except for international debate. The material in this book is based on the presumption that the topic is worded as a proposition of policy.

Of course, there are other requirements for a good topic. It should be interesting, clear, have one central idea, and not be one-sided. But even if these requirements are not met, it can still be debated; such requirements must be considered matters of good technique rather than rules.

Occasionally a contest hinges on the definition of a word or phrase in the topic. The rule is this:

Rule 3b. The affirmative has the right to make any reasonable definition of each of the terms of the proposition.

A "reasonable" definition generally means the definition intended when the proposition was phrased, or the technical definition of the term as used by professionals in that field. If the affirmative's definition is not reasonable, the negative should challenge it at the earliest opportunity.

Rule 3c. If the negative challenges the reasonableness of a definition by the affirmative, the judge must accept the definition of the team that shows better grounds for its interpretation of the term.

The judge is not expected to exercise his own taste in the matter, but to listen to the evidence and logic of the teams and to support the definition shown to be more reasonable.

Rule 3d. Once the negative has accepted the affirmative's definitions, it may not later object to them, even though it later develops that they are unreasonable. Failure of the negative to object to the affirmative's definitions in the first constructive speech following the definitions is equivalent to acceptance of them by the negative.

If the negative wishes to quarrel with the affirmative's interpretation of the topic, it must do so at once. Otherwise the debate might literally be half over before the teams have decided what they are arguing about. If the negative, through oversight, accepts or fails to object to an unreasonable definition by the affirmative, it should not later be heard objecting that the definition was unreasonable.

"Trick" definitions are not encouraged. Unusual definitions are sometimes employed successfully by getting the negative to agree that they are reasonable before it realizes that they are not, but since strategic cases are always possible without resorting to such definitions, it is better to avoid them. They lead only to bickering and quibbling.

One practice, which has much to commend it, is for the two teams to agree on the definitions of any controversial terms in their pre-debate correspondence. These definitions are then included in the debate contract or tournament rules, and are announced by the chairman at the start of the contest.

Of course, all this does not mean that either team is required to define formally any term of the proposition. High school debaters do seem to prefer formal definitions, picking out the terms one by one ("By federal government, we mean..."). College debaters, on the other hand, often prefer to define the entire proposition by explaining the plan they are supporting. Either method is, of course, appropriate in either high school or college work.

The old argument about the meaning of the word "should" in the proposition still arises. Here is the generally accepted definition:

Rule 3e. The phrase "should adopt" or its equivalent means that the affirmative must show that the plan, if adopted, would be desirable. It does not in any way obligate the affirmative to show that the necessary approvals could be obtained.

For example, the constitutionality of the proposal is irrelevant; it must be presumed that the Constitution could be so amended if necessary. Similarly, the claim that too many voters or too many members of Congress are opposed to the bill for it to pass is irrelevant; the only question to be settled is whether or not the plan would be desirable if adopted.

On the other hand, the negative may choose to claim that the plan is not practicable—that if it were put into effect it would not work, either immediately or at some future date. The plan certainly wouldn't be desirable if it didn't work, so this is a legitimate negative case which the affirmative must meet.

Rule 3f. The phrase "should adopt" or its equivalent obligates the affirmative to recommend that action be taken in the reasonably near future.

Ordinarily, no time limit is specified in the topic. Nevertheless, one is implied. The affirmative may allow a reasonable amount of time for working out the details and establishing the administrative functions, but delay until conditions have changed in some significant respect, or until (say) Great Britain tries the plan first, is not permissible.

If no such requirement as this existed, the affirmative might recommend that action be taken twenty years from now, when the plan could be adopted under highly favorable circumstances. The negative's position could be identical, and no debate would ensure. therefore, the affirmative must support reasonably prompt action.
Positions of the Teams

Sometimes the right of a team to recommend certain action is challenged. The limitations are not severe, but they should be clearly understood.

Rule 4a. The affirmative must advocate everything required by the topic itself.

If the affirmative fails to meet all of the requirements of the proposition, it fails in its burden of proof and consequently must lose the debate.

Rule 4b. The affirmative may work out the details of its plan as it sees fit. It may take on the burden of proving anything else it desires.

Of course, the more the affirmative advocates, the more it must prove, so the usual technique is to recommend as little as possible. However, if the affirmative does wish to recommend and support more than is required of it by the topic, the negative has no right to object. The affirmative is assuming the burden of proof for the entire enlarged plan, and if it fails to meet this responsibility, the negative wins.

Rule 4c. The negative may offer any counterplan that would be in order in a legislative assembly discussing the proposition.

The ideal counterplan is one that offers some change in principle from the affirmative proposal, and gives sufficient grounds for rejecting the affirmative proposal. The counterplan actually offered, however, may be something less than ideal, and therefore it is important that each participant clearly understand what is permissible and what is not.

A counterplan which closely parallels the affirmative recommendation, differing only in minor respects, is adequate only if the negative shows that the difference between the two is so important that the affirmative plan should be rejected in favor of the negative proposal.

A counterplan based on surprise may, if successful, catch the affirmative unprepared. In the moment of anguish that comes when the affirmative realizes that it has no answer, there may be charges that the negative proposal is out of order. Actually, surprise in itself is perfectly legitimate. No proposal is ever out of order simply because it was not anticipated by the opposition.

Facetious and irrelevant counterplans are clearly out of order. Such plans would be useless in any event because they would not give logical grounds for rejecting the resolution.

Following legislative practice, disputed matter is admitted if there is doubt as to its admissibility.

Rule 4d. The affirmative must explain, upon demand by the negative, the major features and policies under which the proposed plan is to operate. If the negative recommends a counterplan, it has the same duty.

Neither team may leave its plan so vague as to prevent a reasonable attack by the opposition on grounds of practicability. For instance, when advocating a federal union of the nations of Europe, the affirmative, upon demand, must explain the basis for the selection of representatives from member countries—that is, population, area, natural resources, literate population, or other method.

On the other hand, there is no obligation to explain minor details. The affirmative does not have to know how many representatives Luxembourg will have, so long as it explains the basis of Luxembourg's representation. If the negative can show that the decision of the affirmative about an apparently minor detail of the plan is vitally important, then the affirmative must explain how that part of its plan will work; but if the negative attack is of the "hit-and-run" variety, the affirmative is under no obligation to answer each of these minor objections.

Sometimes an affirmative team decides to leave as much as possible to a commission or legislative body to decide so that the negative will have limited grounds on which to attack. This is permissible with regard to minor details, but if the negative demands an explanation of the major features of the plan, the affirmative is obligated to provide it.

Once a team has made known its position on major or minor issues, or even on small details, it is governed by the following rule:

Rule 4e. No revision of position of a team is permitted during the debate.

This rule is designed to prevent teams from wriggling out of contradictions between speakers by simply saying that they had revised their attitude in the meantime, Furthermore, it simplifies the proceedings and enables everyone concerned to follow the debate more easily; one can readily visualize the difficulty in pinning anyone down if speakers were permitted to shift their position whenever they chose.

When a team shifts ground on some issue, the judge should consider the point won by the opposing team. The only exception would be made when the revision is relatively minor and when, except for the shift of ground, the team making the point has a clearcut superiority on that particular issue.
Proof

A great deal has been written and said about the burden of proof, and certain misconceptions have arisen about the duty of the affirmative. The rule is simple:

Rule 5a. He who asserts must prove.

This principle applies equally to the two teams. Of course, the affirmative must show that its plan is desirable, which means that it must show that some benefits will result; otherwise it has failed to give reason for adopting the plan, and has lost the debate. The commonly heard statement that "the affirmative has the burden of proof" means that and nothing more.

On the other hand, if the negative wants the judge and audience to accept the idea that there are certain defects which outweigh the plan's good points, then it must assume the burden of proving that such disadvantages actually will result.

If the negative introduces a counterplan, it has the burden of showing how it is better than the affirmative's proposal; the affirmative then has the duty of establishing any alleged objections to the counterplan. In every instance, he who asserts must prove.

Rule 5b. In order to establish an assertion, the team must support it with enough evidence and logic to convince an intelligent but previously uninformed person that it is more reasonable to believe the assertion than to disbelieve it.

The amount of proof required in debating is generally less than that required in law. In law, the jury must be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty in order to convict him; in debating, an assertion is established if it is supported by the weight of evidence and logic, even though there still may be room for doubt.

One further distinction is this: In law the jury may disbelieve evidence, even though its accuracy is not disputed. In debating, the judge is measuring the relative skill of the two teams, not deciding the "bedrock merits" of the matter in question. Therefore he is required to accept as valid all arguments backed with reasonable proof (as defined above) until overthrown by the opposing team.

A debate coach once remarked, "The implications here are pretty strong. Does this mean that the judge cannot penalize a team which uses a bare-faced lie as proof? Why not manufacture your evidence?" His point is well taken. Manufactured evidence is so rare in debate as to be almost non-existent, but conceivably it might happen some time. In that event, the following rule would cover the situation:

Rule 5c. Facts, presented in a debate as such, must be accurate.

If the judge is certain that the evidence is deliberately falsified, he is justified in giving the decision to the other team on this point alone. More often, it is simply a matter of interpretation of evidence, and if some error in logic is present, it is up to the other team to find it and point it out.

Rule 5d. Any restatement or quotation of an opponent's argument must be accurate.

A word-for-word quotation, in context, is ideal. This is ordinarily possible when the quotation is short or when one of the members of the team knows shorthand. Under most circumstances, however, the debater finds it necessary to paraphrase his opponent's remarks; for this purpose he needs careful notes and an understanding of his opponent's intent.

Misquotation, whether deliberate or not, unfairly places the other team in a false position and should be studiously avoided.

Rule 5e. Visual aids are permissible in debate. Once introduced, they become available for the opponents' use if desired.

On international questions, one team may desire to point out certain areas on a map. If this be done, the map may also be used by the opposing team. Consequently, it should be left in plain view of the audience, not rolled up and tucked under a table after the first speaker is through with it.

Rule 5f. One-sided visual aids must not be exhibited while an opponent is speaking, unless the opponent specifically requests that this be done.

Some teams prepare an outline of their case on a large poster, and exhibit this poster during the first constructive speech. If this be done, the poster should be removed at the end of the speech so that it does not distract from the attention given the next speaker.

If the next speaker feels that the constructive speech could be refuted more effectively with the poster in front of the audience, he may ask that it be put up again, in which case his request is, of course, granted.

Preferably, visual aids should be introduced in the constructive speeches, rather than held until the rebuttals.
Refutation and Rebuttal

The rebuttal period is a time for refutation and summary; in fact, such emphasis has been placed on summary that some writers now refer to the "rebuttal-summary" period. Sometime one team believes that it has completely refuted the other team's arguments before the final speech starts, and then it may be devoted entirely to summary.

In all fairness to the opposing team, the constructive arguments of a team should be established in the constructive speeches, to allow time for the opposition to answer. Consequently, the following rule is well established:

Rule 8a. No new constructive arguments may be introduced in the rebuttal period.

A constructive argument is generally an alleged advantage or disadvantage in one of the proposed plans. All such arguments must be brought out in the constructive speeches.

Constructive arguments introduced in the rebuttal must be disregarded by the judge, with only one exception:

Rule 8b. New constructive arguments may be introduced in the rebuttal period if the rebuttal is the first opportunity to answer a direct question and if these new arguments answer the question.

The long-standing policy against new constructive arguments in the rebuttal period exists to protect teams from the last-minute introduction of new arguments by their opponents. If a team lets down the bars by an indiscreet question, it no longer deserves this protection; accordingly, the opposition may, if it desires, take advantage of the situation by introducing new constructive arguments in rebuttal. Such instances are rare because most teams find it desirable to introduce their constructive arguments early enough in the debate to support them with adequate evidence.

Rule 8c. Refutation may take place in any part of the debate and is not limited to the rebuttal period.

The above rule is so well understood that its mention would be unnecessary were it not that sometimes young debaters claim otherwise. "Refutation" includes the introduction of new evidence, when used to counter a point raised by the opposition.

Rule 8d. Either team, when advocating a plan of action, must explain that plan early enough in the debate so that the opposing team has a constructive speech in which to reply.

Advantages and disadvantages in a proposed plan of action are generally considered new constructive arguments; and new constructive arguments are not permitted in rebuttal (Rule 8a). Therefore, each team must give the other an opportunity to bring out new arguments of this kind before the rebuttals begin.

From the standpoint of the affirmative team, the rule is not particularly important. The affirmative can delay the explanation of its plan until the second constructive speech if it chooses, since the negative still has a constructive speech in which to bring out the defects of the plan before the rebuttals.

From the standpoint of the negative team, however, the rule is significant. Where there are only two constructive speeches per team, the negative must propose any counterplan in its first constructive speech. If the negative waits until the second constructive speech to introduce the counterplan, the affirmative is forced to ignore it or present new constructive arguments in rebuttal.

If the affirmative is on its toes when the negative violates this principle, it can refuse to discuss the matter, pointing out that the negative left it no constructive time in which to bring out the disadvantages. The judge then considers the counterplan irrelevant, out of the debate, and does not consider it in his decision. This, in effect, penalizes the negative.

If, on the other hand, the affirmative chooses to meet the counterplan in the short time remaining, it does so knowing full well that it will be working under a handicap. Therefore, if the affirmative elects this course it is not entitled to any special sympathy; the judge simply reaches his decision on the basis of the arguments presented.

The last affirmative rebuttal presents special problems of its own, since it is the last speech of the debate and the negative has no opportunity for reply. One such problem is covered by this principle:

Rule 8e. The affirmative must, if possible, reply to the major negative arguments before the last rebuttal.

Suppose this rule were not followed. Suppose, for instance, that the affirmative had opportunity to answer some important negative argument earlier in the debate, but failed to do so until the last speech. The negative, having no speech in which to reply, is unfairly handicapped.

If the negative rebuttalist anticipates this problem, he can make the affirmative look very bad by pointing out, as he summarizes, that the affirmative had opportunity to answer this argument earlier, and they did not do so, so any new defense dragged out at the last minute is under suspicion.

Suppose, however, that the negative does not anticipate the problem, and the affirmative does step out of bounds in that final speech. Suppose, for example, that the final speech contains a serious misquotation, or inaccurate facts that seem rather important, or new constructive arguments. What protection does the negative have? What can it do?

There are two methods for preventing unfairness of this kind. Either (1) the judge must be required to recognize and discard such material from the last rebuttal, or (2) some method must be developed to permit the negative to call the attention of the judge and audience to the situation. Since the negative team can recognize inaccurate quotations or facts more easily than the judge, the following rule seems to provide the preferable solution:

Rule 8f. If the negative believes that the affirmative is making unfair use of the last rebuttal, it may ask for the floor to point out the situation. The affirmative may then defend the statements in question or correct them and apologize.

If the judge determines that the negative charges are true, he penalizes the affirmative by throwing out the arguments in question. If he determines that the negative charges are unjustified, no action is necessary. It seems preferable for the judge to state, before the affirmative speaker resumes his remarks, whether the arguments are to be thrown out or not, for only in this way will the affirmative rebuttalist know whether to continue in the same vein.

The judge makes no distinction between the last rebuttal and any other speech unless the negative points out some unfairness.

The time consumed in appeals and their settlement is not counted.
Judging

One basic principle underlies debate judging:

Rule 9a. The team doing the better debating is the winner.

Conceivably, more than one process might be employed to determine which team does the better debating. Indeed, since the beginning of intercollegiate debating a number of such methods have been proposed and utilized. Probably the most universally acceptable criterion would be this:

Rule 9b. The team doing what the proposition requires is the winner.

Debate topics are worded so that one team must succeed and one team must fail in meeting the requirements of the proposition. The successful team, having done the better debating, is declared victorious.

When the topic is expressed in the usual form as a proposition of policy, the judge's criterion for determining the winning team may be expressed in this form:

Rule 9c. The decision is given to the affirmative if it succeeds in showing that the proposed plan should be adopted. The decision is given to the negative if the affirmative fails to show that the proposal should be adopted.

The judge must remain strictly neutral and impartial with regard to the subject matter for debate. He cannot aid one team or the other by injecting his own personal opinions into the decision. This principle is applied in several ways:

Rule 9d. The judge must base his decision entirely on the material presented, without regard for other material which he may happen to possess.

Arguments or evidence which occur to the judge, but which are not employed in the debate, have no place in the decision. However, if the judge happens to possess some significant facts not employed in the debate, it would be helpful for him to mention them after his decision, as a suggestion for future use.

Rule 9e. The judge is required to accept as true all arguments backed by reasonable proof (as defined above) until such arguments are overthrown by the opposing team.

The judge has no right to consider an argument weak unless the opposing team shows that it is, or unless the team making the argument badly asserts it and fails to support it with adequate evidence or reasoning.

Rule 9f. The judge must not accept ideas which are not backed by reasonable proof.

Unsupported assertions and purely emotional appeals must not be considered. The use of emotion is legitimate in driving home a point, and is to be encouraged in many instances, but the point must also be supported by evidence or logic if it is to be considered.

Impartiality also applies to the judgment of the debate techniques employed. Harlan puts it this way:

"The danger of using coaches for judges is that they have their own ideas about how best to prove each side, and, regardless of how good your proof might be, if you do not prove it as they would, there will be a tendency to discount your arguments."

Perhaps this does not apply to the majority of coaches who serve as judges. But in those instances where the coach-judge does swerve from impartiality, the criticism is valid. Each team has the right to make use of whatever arguments it desires, and the judge may not penalize a team for failing to make use of an argument or type of case he considers good. The entire decision must be based on what the teams accomplish, not on what the judge personally believes a good debate case on that subject to be.
Violations

Rules of debate exist to define the procedure and the playing field. They are similar to rules of football in that violation means a penalty of some sort but not necessarily loss of the game. Of course, in a tight situation the penalty could, in either game, mean the difference between victory and defeat.

Rules of debate are designed so that the teams suffer the natural consequences of their actions. There is no parallel in debate to football's five-yard penalty, but there is a close parallel to an out-of-bounds run in football: If the runner goes out of bounds, the play is stopped at that point; any gain made off the playing field is disallowed. In debate, any gain made outside of the established procedure is disallowed.

Suppose, for example, that a team brings up new constructive arguments in rebuttal. Since there is a rule against it, the judge would be required to disregard such arguments. This means that the offending team has wasted some of its time, which is the natural penalty one would expect. No additional penalty is placed on top of this natural one.

Again, suppose that a team makes assertions without proof. Since there is a rule which says that he who asserts must prove, the judge will decline to accept unsupported assertions. This is the natural penalty for violation of the rule. No additional penalty is inflicted.

This may be summarized as follows:

Rule 10. Any gains made outside of the established procedure are disallowed.